Practical ways to motivate learners ,Problems and solutions of motivation by Jitu Das education

1.     Depression : Children, like adults also suffer from depression, although their symptoms may not be the same. Additionally, children respond well to treatment. Depression is defined as an illness when the feelings of depression persist and interfere with a child or adolescent’s ability to function. About 5 percent of children and adolescents in the general population suffer from depression at any given point in time. Children under stress, who experience loss, or who have attention problems, learning, conduct or anxiety disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Depression also tends to run in families.The behavior of depressed children and teenagers may differ from the behavior of depressed adults. Child and adolescent psychiatrists advise parents to be aware of signs of depression in their youngsters.

Solution : The soulution is to help the children who are not doing well in the exams, the teacher should be observant about the behaviour and try to help inspire everyone in the classroom to learn, the motivation to learn should not be only about doing good in exam. Parents should also notice their children whether they are happy or not, the parents should ask their children about how they are feeling, if there is anything wrong. Sometimes therapy might be necessary for the children.

2.     Fear of failure : An early established fear of failure at school can influence students’ motivation to learn and negatively affect their attitude to learning. The analysis found that irrespective of the goal students adopt those who had developed a fear of failure at an early age were more likely to adopt the goal to validate their ego rather than for their own personal interest and development, and were less likely to use effective learning strategies but more likely to cheat.

Solution : The fear of failure arises when then the parents expect good grades everytime, which is actually normal, but the child may not be able to do good, but if the child was not able to do good in one exam, he should not be scold or show any kind of negativity to him, instead the parents, the teachers should only encourage the child and tell him his weakpoints and where he should work  hard.

3.     Tougher Academics and More Responsibilities: 

The academic demands increase with every year of high school. Tough situations don't necessarily inspire motivation, too much responsibilities create stress on the children, that is why the education system should lessen the course. 

Solution :

The education should be about quality and not about quantity. So, I suggest an qualitative approach to education, which will help the student and benefit the world.

4. Social Pressures :

Social situations can also be a source of stress for teens. They can feel pressure to fit in, to be popular and to have a lot of friends—whether these are real friends or not. And as teens become more independent, they may find themselves in new and possibly risky situations where they need to make tough choices.

 Solution : The social pressure is every point and everyside of life, in education also, there is social pressure, ie. Social expectation ( Social norms for good students and bad students). A student

5.     Uncertainty About the Future

In high school, kids have to start thinking about what kind of career they want to pursue. They also have to choose a path: college, work, vocational training. 

 Solution : Uncertainty is the nature of child, in life one has to face to uncertainty every day. In academic life too, the child has to face uncertainty of his life, of what he will become in life. The uncertainty of life keeps the child worried and daydreaming, so he remains distracted most of the time of his study. That is why his elders, parents, teachers should guide the children in choosing a path. The parents must encourage the natural talents of the child, so that he could develop it from his childhood and master it.

6.     Physical disabilities : 

Students may have physical disabilities arising from conditions such as congenital deformities, spina bifida and/or hydrocephalus, muscular dystrophy, cerebral palsy, brittle bones, haemophilia, cystic fibrosis or severe accidental injury. It is important to state that there is no necessary direct correlation between the degree of physical disability and the inability to cope with the school curriculum, apart from the elements involving physical activity. Students with severe physical disability may have minimal special educational needs, while those with minimal physical disability may have serious learning needs.

Solution : The solution to this is always medical help, but that is not enough, because one must have strong will, strong and focused mindset to achieve greatness in life. The teacher , the parents should inspire the child as much they can, the child must have at first develop a strong mindset that will help him overcome his physical disabilities. Mind has power that is we all neglect, we think physical work is the only work, the work you do in the mind is a hard work too. If we use our mind, one can achieve all his desires.

7.     Mental Problems or mentally retard : 

Children with Mental disorder finds no motivation in school or learning. Mental health issues can start in very young students or emerge later with teenagers. Often mental health problems can cause difficulty for students with playing, learning, speaking, behavior and emotional control. Short attention spans, easy distraction, too much talking and constant interruptions as well as hyperactivity are just a few of the symptoms of this mental health disorder. This condition can have a strong impact on a student’s ability to learn as well as a teacher’s ability to maintain the classroom. OCD can make learning difficult for children. Low grades, missing school work and lack of classroom concentration are common student symptoms of OCD because the compulsions and obsessions are so distracting.

Solution : The teacher and parents should handle the child with mental problems very delicately. They should never make fun of the child even in non-harms way. The teacher should be extra kind to the child and help him feel comfortable. The teacher should also ask other students to be friendly with him.

8. Defective curriculum : 

 The Secondary Education Commission has analysed the traditional curriculum and pointed out the following defects in the traditional Curriculum.

• 1. Narrowly conceived.   :  The existing curriculum is narrowly conceived. It only prepares the children for college education and not for life. The subjects included in the curriculum have no relevance to life in society. 
• 2. Bookish. The curriculum is bookish and theoretical. The students do not learn beyond their prescribed books. The practical application of knowledge is not stressed. 
•  
• 3. Single-track.  :  It is a single-track system. The curriculum is rigidly uniform, irrespective of individual differences in children. There is no provision for diversification of courses and activities. Activities like games, sports, hobbies, crafts etc. are neglected. This mono- track system is still followed in our schools.

Solution : The curriculum is the main reason of  no motivation in the school, the course too lengthy, they are only good for the bright ones, but the weak student is not helped the curriculum. Curriculum has no practical knowledge and application, which wastes away the children from learning important life skills. The curriculum should also inspire and motivate every type of students. Curriculum should be made regarding the qualitative side of the education. The curriculum should inspire the students to learn and teachers to teach, that is education system can fulfill it’s destiny that is grow and develop our personal best.

8.     Defective Teaching method : There are different types of teaching methods which can be categorised into three broad types. These are teacher-centred methods, learner-centred methods, content-focused methods and interactive/participative methods. Now a days student centered teaching is regarded as the best teaching method.The teachers, being the focal figure in education, must be competent and knowledgeable in order to impart the knowledge they could give to their students. Good teaching is a very personal manner. Effective teaching is concerned with the student as a person and with his general development. The teacher must recognize individual differences among his/her students and adjust instructions that best suit to the learners. It is always a fact that educators play varied and vital roles in the classroom. Teachers are considered the light in the classroom.

       Solution : Above all, the teacher must himself come into possession of adequate knowledge of the objectives and standards of the curriculum, skills in teaching, interests, appreciation and ideals. He needs to exert effort to lead children or students into a life that is large, full, stimulating and satisfying. Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about learning, but many need or expect their instructors or teachers to inspire, challenge or stimulate them. "Effective learning in the classroom depends on the teacher's ability to maintain the interest that brought students to the course in the first place (Erickson, 1978). Not all students are motivated by the same values, needs, desires and wants. Some students are motivated by the approval of others or by overcoming challenges.

9.     Poverty : When it comes to poverty and education, many children face difficult situations. “Poverty, regardless of level, is robustly linked to reduced academic achievement.” Students who live in poverty come to school every day without the proper tools for success. As a result, they are commonly behind their classmates physically, socially, emotionally or cognitively.

Solution : The solution to this problem is making the study materials and tools affordable for everyone disregarding socio-economic situation. The teacher should not discriminate the students regarding their socio-economic situation and inspire everyone to do great things in life. The teacher should motivate the children to be rich and good in life because I believe poverty is the root of all crime.

10.  Language Problem : The language problem has been a perennial trouble-spot in our educational history. The language used by the teacher must be understood by students easily.  

Solution : The teacher must also have good knowledge of the language and pronunciation he uses in the classroom. If the students do not understand the language in which the teacher is teaching, the students will  not feel motivated to learn 

11.            Juvenile delinquency : A great deal of scientific research examines the relationship between poor school performance and delinquency. The direction of the causal link between education and juvenile delinquency is fundamentally complex. Early aggressive behavior may lead to difficulties in the classroom. Such difficulties, in turn, may result in a child’s receiving unfavorable evaluations from teachers or peers. These, in turn, might result in delinquency and decrease motivation in learning.

Solution : The solution to this is that the teacher and parents should not give up hope on the child, they should patiently work on the children to make him a good students, beating and giving hard punishment does not necessarily convert a bad student into a good one. So, they should be very careful with the student and change  his personality in the good way, the teacher and parents must show compassion and not anger, kindness and not scolding and help the child see the right way.

12. Teacher’s attitude : Learning motivation is generally stimulated through various forms of modeling, communication, instruction or socialization by teachers (Brophy, 1987). During the learning process, student motivation could be influenced by attitudes toward their self-perception, general learning environment, subject, teachers, and personal needs (Christophel, 1990). Recent studies on motivation (e.g. Christophel, 1990; Noels, 2003) have recognized teachers’ behaviors as one of factors to students’ learning motivation. Teachers are potential active agents within the educational environment and thus are capable of influencing the students’ learning motivation.

Solution : The teacher should be a role model, the teacher should be kind and joyful. The teacher should be fun, interesting along with being a master of the subject. The teacher should be a friend, he should listen to his students, he should help them as much he can, he should bring smile to student’s face. The teacher should a friendly and not too friendly , there must be line, the teacher should not cross, the teacher should not insult the students and the list goes on. To be a teacher is the hardest job, in his shoulder lies the weight of hopes and dreams of the world’s future generation. A teacher can change the world, if he can make his students great.

How an Adolescenct boy or girl develops during the adolescence period

The adolescence is the span between the childhood and adult. It comes in between the years from 12 to the early 20s. It is a transitional period of life.

Physical development  : 

  During this stage, an individual attains biological maturation, which means an increase in height, weight etc. Sometimes the growth is disproportionate due to the lengthening of hands and feet, which makes the body awkward and clumsy, resulting in improper cooperation of the limbs of the body. Due to this, the adolescenct is self- conscious and over-sensitive about their physical appearance.

Sexual development : 

Sexual development is undoubtedly the central fact of adolescence and therefor it is essential to provide sex education to both boys and girls at this stage. Many changes pertaining to sex and sex organs occur in boys and girls, which though they are quite normal and natural, but are misunderstood as some type of abnormality, which leads to unnecessary worry and anxiety. This makes it absolutely imperative to provide education and guidance to adolescent.

Emotional development: 

 This is a period of emotional instability and fantastic imagination. An adolescence is highly emotional and moody, most of his actions and decisions are based on emotions rather than on rational judgment. His moods vary highly from hilarious to depressed. The creative side is also at their highest peak during adolescence. This is the time of art and poetry, the basis of artistic and literacy greatness are formed during this fantastic period of life.

 

Intellectual development: 

 

Human intelligence reaches its maximum at this stage. This is a period of great intellectual attainments. Both boys and girls develop the keen interest in reading and writing their interests widen to a great extent. The boy or the girl starts to show the uniqueness at this stage. The intellectual acquires extra sharpness at this stage. All the individual faculties are at the red-hot point at this stage. Therefore, the teacher should make use of the same so that the studies may be able to make the best use of their faculties.

Social development :

  The gregarious instinct fully matures at this period. This is a period of making lasting friendship. At this stage, most of the boys become a member of a group or a gang. They are mostly guided by the group mind. The interests of the group are uppermost in their minds and therefore, for a slight class of interest of an individual.  Their behaviours in such matter is impulsive and emotional. An individual is likely to comment vile  and undesirable acts because of the group mind. But, if the group is rightly guided, it is most likely to do many useful things for the good of the society.

Moral and spiritual development :  

 This is an age of hero-worshiping and all his and her moral, spiritual feelings are centered round a special person. At this stage, the feelings of the individuals are pure and pious and they are moved by moral considerations. They may not believe in ritual and dogmas, but they believe in moral code and conduct.Sometimes, they have high spiritual aspirations and try to seek guidance and blessings of some spiritual leader. The basic fact is that most of them are pure at heart and their minds have not yet been polluted by the selfishness and greed prevalent in the society.

What is Adolescence, Different definitions by different Authors

What is Adolescence?

Adolescence is that phase of human development during which boys and girls move from childhood to adulthood mentally, emotionally, physically and socially. Thus, adolescence is a period of development and has a great fascination for educationists because of it’s importance and impact on the total development of human personality. A large number of psychologists have made a deep study of the adolescence stage and have come out with a number of general characteristics of the stage of adolescence.

Different definitions of adolescence by different authors :

The word adolescence comes from a Greek word “ Adolescence” which means “ to grow to maturity”. A number of definitions have been given by psychologists from time to time. Some psychologists define it as the transitional period of life. The child experiences a number of changes in this transitional period. The period runs between childhood and adulthood and is some times called the stage if teenage.

According to AT Jersild, “Adolescence is that span of years during which boys and girls move from childhood to adulthood, mentally, emotionally socially and physically.”

According to some psychologists, it is the period when an individual is capable of begetting offspring. It means that when the power of reproducing its own kind is attained by the individual then we can say that he/ she has become an adolescent.

According to Dorothy Rogers,” A process rather than a period a process of achieving the attitude and beliefs needed for effective participation in the society. The age of great ideals and the beginning of theories as well as the time of simple adaptation to reality.

Influence of family or home on personality development of Children

Personality development is influenced by family environment like the number of members in the family birth order of the child, emotional climate of the family outlook of parents, socio-economic and cultural conditions of the family, rejecting loving or neglectful parents, nervous or cheerful parents, dominant or submissive parents, broken homes , size of the family, the only child family, parental favoritism, family moral, value placed on sex of the child, presence of step parents and other relatives in the home. Congenial or healthy home environment positively influences personality development and unhealthy home environment adversely influences personality development.

Family life pattern: Family, life, aims, ambitions, aspirations, and attitudes of parents, their emotional stability or instability, their over-protection or under protection to children, child training methods ( democratic or authoritarian)- all these factors are important in the development of the individual.

Child training methods: Children brought up by democratic methods make better social adjustments outside the home and have a more favorable attitude towards people and social activities than children brought up by authoritarian methods.

Type of Relationship: Only when children have a satisfactory relationship with their parents then they can enjoy social contacts outside the home. Only under such conditions they can have healthy attitudes towards people and learn to function in a group composed of their peers.

The unfavorable parental treatment and attitude, lack of love and affection, restricted home environment, faulty child-rearing practices develop a feeling of insecurity, mistrust and pessimism.

Developmental Psychology The biological factors of Personality development in children

The word personality is derived from the Latin word, persona, which means mask or dress worn by a player or an actor on the stage. Personality is not only the physical appearance rather it comprises the natural impulses, acquired traits, complexes, sentiments, etc. It is the apex and crux of psychology and education. It is the totality of all the traits of a human being.

Development of personality

The development of personality is conditioned or shaped by biological, social and cultural and psychological determinants.The determinants are given below :

Physical personality

Physical differences ie., differences in height, weight, complexion, bodily form or defects influence the personality of the individual.

Height :

The child who has short statures may develop a feeling of inferiority if others tease him about it.

Weight :

 Similarly, if a person is overweight, his playmates, class fellows and friends tease him and he will develop inferiority feelings.

Physical defects:

Physically handicapped children have no well-developed personalities as compared to normal children. For instance, blindness or poor eye sight, deafness or dull hearing directly influence the development of his personality.

Health and strength:

A person who has good health, strength, energy, and vigor generally develops an emotionally balanced attitude towards life and take part in various types of competitions.

Intelligence: There is definitely some relationship between intelligence and personality. Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Persons who are very intelligent can make a better adjustment in home, school, and society than those persons who are less intelligent.

Sex Differences: 

 Boys are generally more assertive, tough minded and vigorous. They have a better need to succeed with regard to interests and aptitudes. Girls show interests in less vigorous games. They are quitter and interested in personal appearances. They have a better sense of fine art. They are more injured by personal, emotional and social problems. Thus sex differences play a vital role in the development of personality of individual.

Nervous system :  

 Nervous system plays a vital role in the development of personality. Man’s intellectual, motor ability, physical strength and ability to adjust depending upon the structure and modification of the nervous system.  Any injury to nervous system will affect the personality of the individual. The nervous system limits one’s learning capacity.          So, it is evident that the development of personality is influenced by the nature of the nervous system.

Endocrine gland : 

 Endocrine glands play an important role influencing the physical , intellectual, emotional, social and moral development of personality. Their malfunctioning has an adverse effect on various aspects of growth and development. Adrenal glands lie on the top of the kidneys. These glands, two in number, secrete separate hormones –cortin and adrenaline. The deficiency of cortin results in Addison ’s disease which causes poor judgment. Adrenaline stimulates the release of blood sugar from the liver to provide more energy in emotions. It also stimulates the heart, which pumps faster and this furnishes more blood to all parts of the body.

 Thyroid gland lies at the base of the neck in front of the windpipe. It has a very important function in the development. If it is overactive the body tissues are overstimulated, the person becomes restless, irritable, worried, nervous, excited, hyperactivity of this gland causes a disease known as cretinism which makes the person slow, sluggish, lethargic, tired and sleepy, depressed, physically and mentally retarded. 

Parathyroid glands are situated in the back of thyroid. These are four small, rounded glands, parathyroid hormone regulates the calcium- phosphorus balance in the blood. Proper calcium-phosphorus balance is necessary for the growth of bones and teeth, for muscle tone and for normal nervous activity. Deficiency of parathormone causes cramps, convulsions and muscular tenseness. 

The pituitary gland is very small, it lies at the base of the brain. It is also called master gland because it influences all the other glands and helps to maintain the chemical equilibrium of the body. If influences physical, intellectual and emotional development of the person.        

         Sex glands are responsible for the sex drive. The male sex glands are called the testes and the female sex glands are called the ovaries. The hormones produced by testes are called the testosterone and the hormones produced by the ovaries are osestrogene, progesterone and relaxin. The hormones of male and female sex glands influence the growth of the characteristics that differentiate the male from the female, ie. , the shape of the body, distribution of hair on the body or on the face, voice etc.

The importance of studying Developmental psycholgy

Developmental psychology is a broad branch of psychology. It is the scientific study of human growth and development. It examines and explains how and why people change throughout the lifespan. This developmental process includes all aspects of development like physical, intellectual, emotional, social, perceptual and personality development.

Following are the some of the importance of  Studying Developmental psychology

1. Parents, teachers, therapists, doctors and caregivers who work for assisting the development of man and providing care, education and training needs to have a solid understanding of developmental psychology.

2. Education itself is a form of development, knowledge of developmental psychology for teachers is fundamental to their effectiveness. Knowledge of developmental psychology helps teachers to suitably plan and develop lessons for students.

3. The growth of children during infancy is very fast. This can be easily understood by observing any child during the first six years of his life. Therefore, it is very necessary that special attention is paid to all-sided development of children not only since the time of their birth but even from the moment of conception in the mother's womb.

4. Parents need to know about the developmental psychology so that they can recognize if their children's growth is proceeding as it should. If they notice that their children are failing to achieve basic developmental milestones, obtaining professional help becomes important. The nature of personality development is influenced by the chronological order of the child amongst other children in the family. Being the eldest, the middle, the youngest, the only, all of it have a different impact on the child and his personality development.So, it is very imprtant for the parents to understand the child's situation and respond to him suitably.

5. Developmental psychology is very important to understand the psycho-physical aspects of growing individuals at different stages of their development throughout the lifespan. Development psychology is of vital importance to teachers and educators for making proper planning and provision of education of different categories of learners including the gifted and the not so bright.

6. Knowledge of developmental psychology for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of mental illness is indispensable. In addition to this, developmental psychology helps to understand what normal development, to identify innate talents, to understand the role of nature and nurture in the child's personal development.

7. Above all, developmental psychology is a very important branch of psychology which studies the growth and development of a human being from the infancy until death and has offered guidance towards teaching, clinical psychotherapy etc.

What are the different personality traits ?

The word ' personality' is derived from the Latin word, 'personal' which means ' mask' or 'dress' worn by a player or an actor on the stage. Personality is not only the physical appearance, rather it comprises the natural impulses, acquired traits, complexes, sentiments, etc. It is the apex and crux of psychology and education. It is the totality of all the traits of a human being.

The different traits of Personality are : 

1. Physical Traits
2. Mental Traits
3. Emotional traits
 4. Volition and chracter
5. Sociability
6. Forcefulness or persistence

 1. Physical Traits
 Physical traits of the personality are determined by complexion, height, physical structure, weight and such other traits.
2. Mental Traits 
Under this particular traits, intelligence, memory, imagination, perception, reasoning, faith are included. Mental traits are the signs of person’s behavior and attitude towards people.

3. Emotional Traits 
Emotional traits occupy a very important place in the personality of the individual. Generally, we try to find out whether a person is extrovert and introvert. Psychologists are the of the opinion that endocrine glands exercise a good deal of influence on an emotional trait.

 4. Volition and character
These traits include the power of thinking of an individual. Some are active while others are docile. Some are stable while others are unstable in their determination. There are people who are always creating something, fighting for a cause, there are people who are activist who are eveready to speak out their voice and there are those who ignore everything but himself.

 5. Sociability  
Some try to escape society while others try to invade it, rule it. Some are egoistic temperament and others are submissive. Some people are extrovert and some introvert, the extrovert are the ones who can mingle with anyone, they are comfortable with any situation and any people, while introverts do not like all situation and all people.

6. Forcefulness or persistence
There are those who are persistent and have the force and internal will to get what they desire in life. These are the people who become successful in life.

What is personality development ?

What a person is, what he thinks and experiences, what virtue and vices possess are manifested through his behavior and speech. Personality is the entire pattern of behaviour points of an individual. The personality of a person is a mirror of his whole organized behaviour patterns.

Personality development implies the development of the traits of the individual. Here trait theory of personality comes to our help to have an adequate understanding of the problem. An attempt is made to detail the traits which constitute personality. At the same time, it must be observed that personality is the whole individual and it is what one is what one was and what one willbe. It includes an individual's past, present and future. An individual's personality is determined and built in the present, in the past, and for the future.



Personality development is the relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish individuals from one another. The dominant view in the field of personality psychology today holds that personality emerges early and continues to change in meaningful ways throughout the lifespan.

Personality development depends on two factors :
1. Heredity and
2. Environment
 It is one of the hard questions in psychology which one is more influential in developing one's personality, is it the heredity or the environment. Earlier it was believed that heredity or genetics has a greater influence on the personality development. So, it was believed that a person comes with his personality since birth. According to this view it was believed that education could bring no change in personality. But according to the psychoanalysts, it is now believed that environment also plays an important role in the development of personality. But the studies on twins showed that despite being brought up in a different environment, the twins developed an almost same personality.

What is personality ? Definitions by Different Psychologists

The word " Personality is derived from the Latin word, "Persona'' which means ' mask' or 'dress' worn by a player or an actor on the stage. Persoanlity is not only the physical appearnace rather it comprises the natural impulses, acquired traits, complexes, sentiments, etc. It is the apex and crux of psychology and education. It is the totality of all the traits of a human being.

Personality has many definitions,they are given below

1. G.W.Allport defines personality as "the dynamic organization, within the individual of those psychological systems that determines his unique adjustment to his environment."

2. According to Watson, "Personality is the sum total of activities that can be discovered by actual observation over a long enough time to give reliable information."

3. According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, "personality develops through a series of stages, each characterized by a certain internal psychological conflict.Sigmund Freud ‘s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego." 

( Id is the part of us that wants to do everything he desires without weighing down any consequences, superego is the part that wants to do only right, safe things and tries to protect the person ultimately from any harm, and the ego is the balanced part of the id and superego, ego is moral and social and often gets swayed by the id part of the consciousness.)

4. Gordon Allport defined personality as "the dynamic organization within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior
and thought."

5. Hans Eysenck defines that "personality is the more or less stable and enduring organization of a persons character temperament, interact and physique which determines his unique adjustment to the environment.

6.  Rogers' personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept.  This is defined as "the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself."

The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person.  The self is our inner personality, and can be likened to the soul, or Freud's psyche.  The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those experiences.  Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others.


7. Maslow explicitly defines self-actualization to be "the desire for self-fulfillment, namely the tendency for him [the individual] to become actualized in what he is potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming."

8. Morton prince defines personality as "Sum total of all, the biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, appetites and instincts of the individual and the acquired disposition and tendencies.

9. Munn in defines personality as  " The most characteristic integration of an individual structure, modes of behaviour, interest attitudes and abilities and aptitudes, especially from the point of adjustment in social situations."